Organic chemistry / Paula Yurkanis Bruice.

Includes index.

Part 1 An Introduction to the Study of Organic Chemistry 1 Remembering General Chemistry: Electronic Structure and Bonding 1.1 The Structure of an Atom1.2 How the Electrons in an Atom Are Distributed1.3 Ionic and Covalent Bonds1.4 How the Structure of a Compound Is Represented1.5 Atomic Orbitals1.6 An Introduction to Molecular Orbital Theory1.7 How Single Bonds Are Formed in Organic Compounds1.8 How a Double Bond Is Formed: The Bonds in Ethene1.9 How a Triple Bond Is Formed: The Bonds in Ethyne1.10 The Bonds in the Methyl Cation, the Methyl Radical, and the Methyl Anion1.11 The Bonds in Ammonia and In the Ammonium Ion1.12 The Bonds in Water1.13 The Bond in a Hydrogen Halide1.14 Hybridization and Molecular Geometry1.15 Summary: Hybridization, Bond Lengths, Bond Strengths, and Bond Angles1.16 The Dipole Moments of Molecules 2 Acids and Bases: Central to Understanding Organic Chemistry2.1 An Introduction to Acids and Bases2.2 pka and pH2.3 Organic Acids and Bases2.4 How to Predict the Outcome of an Acid-Base Reaction2.5 How to Determine the Position of Equilibrium2.6 How the Structure of an Acid affects its pKa Value2.7 How Substituent's affect the Strength of an Acid2.8 An Introduction to Delocalized Electrons2.9 A Summary of the Factors That Determine Acid Strength2.10 How pH affects the Structure of an Organic Compound2.11 Buffer Solutions2.12 Lewis Acids and Bases Tutorial: Acids and Bases 3 An Introduction to Organic Compounds: Nomenclature, Physical Properties, and Representation of Structure3.1 How Alkyl Substituents Are Named3.2 The Nomenclature of Alkanes3.3 The Nomenclature of Cycloalkanes * Skeletal Structures3.4 The Nomenclature of Alkyl Halides3.5 The Nomenclature of Ethers3.6 The Nomenclature of Alcohols3.7 The Nomenclature of Amines3.8 The Structures of Alkyl Halides, Alcohols, Ethers, and Amines3.9 The Physical Properties of Alkanes, Alkyl Halides, Alcohols, Ethers, and Amines3.10 Rotation Occurs about Carbon-Carbon single Bonds3.11 Some Cycloalkanes Have Angle Strain3.12 The Conformers of Cyclohexane3.13 Conformers of Monosubstituted Cyclohexanes3.14 Conformers of Disubstituted Cyclohexanes3.15 Fused Cyclohexane Rings Part Two Electrophilic Addition Reactions, Stereochemistry, and Electron Delocalization Tutorial: Using Molecular Models 4 Isomers: The Arrangement of Atoms in Space 4.1 Cis-Trans Isomers Result from Restricted Rotation4.2 A Chiral Object Has a Nonsuperimposable Mirror Image4.3 An Asymmetric Center is a Cause of Chirality in a Molecule4.4 Isomers with One Asymmetric Center4.5 Asymmetric Centers and Stereocenters4.6 How to Draw Enantiomers4.7 Naming Enantiomers by the R, S System4.8 Chiral Compounds Are Optically Active4.9 How Specific Rotation Is Measured4.10 Enantiomeric Excess4.11 Compounds with More than One Asymmetric Center4.12 Stereoisomers of Cyclic Compounds 4.13 Meso Compounds Have Asymmetric Centers but Are Optically Inactive4.14 How to Name Isomers with More than One Asymmetric Center4.15 How Enantiomers Can be Separated4.16 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Atoms Can Be Asymmetric Centers Tutorial: Interconverting Structural Representations 5 Alkenes: Structure, Nomenclature, and an Introduction to Reactivity * Thermodynamics and Kinetics5.1 Molecular Formulas and the Degree of Unsaturation5.2 The Nomenclature of Alkenes5.3 The Structure of Alkenes5.4 Naming Alkenes Using the E,Z System5.5 How an Organic Compound Reacts Depends On Its Functional Group5.6 How Alkenes React * Curved Arrows Show the Flow of Electrons5.7 Thermodynamics and Kinetics5.8 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction5.9 The Difference between the Rate of a Reaction and the Rate Constant for a Reaction5.10 A Reaction Coordinate Diagram Describes the Energy Changes that Take Place during a Reaction5.11 Catalysis5.12 Catalysis by Enzymes Tutorial: An Exercise in Drawing Curved Arrows: Pushing Electrons 6 The Reactions of Alkenes: The Stereochemistry of Addition Reactions6.1 The Addition of a Hydrogen Halide to an Alkene6.2 Carbocation Stability Depends on the Number of Alkyl Groups Attached to the Positively Charged Carbon6.3 What Does the Structure of the Transition State Look Like?6.4 Electrophilic Addition Reactions Are Regioselective6.5 The Addition of Water to an Alkene6.6 The Addition of an Alcohol to an Alkene6.7 A Carbocation will rearrange if it can Form a More Stable Carbocation6.8 Oxymercuration-Demercuration Is another Way to Add Water to an Alkene6.9 The Addition of Borane to an Alkene: Hydroboration-Oxidation6.10 The Addition of a Halogen to an Alkene6.11 The Addition of a Peroxyacid to an Alkene6.12 The Addition Of Ozone To An Alkene: Ozonolysis6.13 The Addition of Hydrogen to an Alkene 6.14 The Relative Stabilities of Alkenes6.15 Regioselective, Stereoselective, and Stereospecific Reactions6.16 The Stereochemistry of Electrophilic Addition Reactions of Alkenes6.17 The Stereochemistry of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions6.18 Enantiomers Can Be Distinguished by Biological Molecules6.19 Reactions and Synthesis 7 The Reactions of Alkynes: An Introduction to Multistep Synthesis7.1 The Nomenclature of Alkynes7.2 How to Name a Compound That Has More than One Functional Group7.3 The Physical Properties of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons7.4 The Structure of Alkynes7.5 Alkynes Are Less Reactive than Alkenes7.6 The Addition of Hydrogen Halides and the Addition of Halogens to an Alkyne7.7 The Addition of Water to an Alkyne7.8 The Addition of Borane to an Alkyne: Hydroboration-Oxidation7.9 The Addition of Hydrogen to an Alkyne7.10 A Hydrogen Bonded to an sp Carbon Is "Acidic"7.11 Synthesis Using Acetylide Ions7.12 Designing a Synthesis I: An Introduction to Multistep Synthesis 8 Delocalized Electrons and Their Effect on Stability, pKa, and the Products of a Reaction8.1 Delocalized Electrons Explain Benzene's Structure8.2 The Bonding in Benzene8.3 Resonance Contributors and the Resonance Hybrid8.4 How to Draw Resonance Contributors8.5 The Predicted Stabilities of Resonance Contributors8.6 Delocalization Energy Is the Additional Stability Delocalized Electrons Give to a Compound8.7 Benzene is an Aromatic Compound8.8 The Two Criteria for Aromaticity8.9 Applying the Criteria for Aromaticity8.10 Aromatic Heterocyclic Compounds8.11 Antiaromaticity8.12 A Molecular Orbital Description of Aromaticity and Antiaromaticity8.13 More Examples that Show How Delocalized Electrons Affect Stability8.14 A Molecular Orbital Description of Stability8.15 How Delocalized Electrons Affect pKa Values8.16 Delocalized Electrons Can Affect the Product of a Reaction8.17 Reactions of Dienes 8.18 Thermodynamic Versus Kinetic Control8.19 The Diels-Alder Reaction Is a 1,4-Addition Reaction8.20 Retrosynthetic Analysis of the Diels-Alder Reaction 8.21 Organizing What We Know About the Reactions of Organic Compounds Tutorial: Drawing Resonance Contributors Part Three Substitution and Elimination Reactions 9 Substitution Reactions of Alkyl Halides9.1 The Mechanism for an SN2 Reaction9.2 Factors That Affect SN2 Reactions9.3 The Mechanism for an SN1 Reaction9.4 Factors That Affect SN1 Reactions9.5 Benzylic Halides, Allylic Halides, Vinylic Halides, and Aryl Halides9.6 Competition between SN2 and SN1 Reactions9.7 The Role of the Solvent in SN1 and SN2 Reactions9.8 Intermolecular Versus Intramolecular Reactions9.9 Methylating Agents Used by Chemists Versus Those Used by Cells 10 Elimination Reactions of Alkyl Halides * Competition between Substitution and Elimination10.1 The E2 Reaction10.2 An E2 Reaction Is Regioselective10.3 The E1 Reaction10.4 Benzylic and Allylic Halides10.5 Competition between E2 and E1 Reactions10.6 E2 and E1 Reactions Are Stereoselective10.7 Elimination from Substituted Cyclohexanes10.8 A Kinetic Isotope Effect Can Help Determine a Mechanism10.9 Competition between Substitution and Elimination10.10 Substitution and Elimination Reactions in Synthesis10.11 Designing a Synthesis II: Approaching the Problem 11 Reactions of Alcohols, Ethers, Amines, Thiols, and Thioethers11.1 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions of Alcohols: Forming Alkyl Halides11.2 Other Methods used to Convert Alcohols into Alkyl Halides11.3 Converting an Alcohol into a Sulfonate Ester11.4 Elimination Reactions of Alcohols: Dehydration11.5 Oxidation of Alcohols11.6 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions of Ethers11.7 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions of Epoxides11.8 Arene Oxides11.9 Amines do not Undergo Substitution or Elimination Reactions11.10 Quaternary Ammonium Hydroxides Undergo Elimination Reactions11.11 Thiols, Sulfides, and Sulfonium Salts11.12 Organizing What We Know About the Reactions of Organic Compounds 12 Organometallic Compounds 12.1 Organolithium and Organomagnesium Compounds12.2 The Reaction of Organolithium Compounds And Gridnard Reagents With Electrophiles12.3 Transmetallation12.4 Coupling Reactions12.5 Palladium-Catalyzed Coupling Reactions12.6 Alkene Metathesis 13 Radicals * Reactions of Alkanes13.1 Alkanes Are Unreactive Compounds13.2 The Chlorination and Bromination of Alkanes13.3 Radical Stability Depends On the Number of Alkyl Groups Attached To the Carbon with the Unpaired Electron13.4 The Distribution of Products Depends On Probability and Reactivity13.5 The Reactivity Selectivity Principle13.6 Formation of Explosive Peroxides13.7 The Addition of Radicals to an Alkene13.8 The Stereochemistry of Radical Substitution and Radical Addition Reactions13.9 Radical Substitution of Benzylic and Allylic Hydrogens13.10 Designing a Synthesis III: More Practice with Multistep Synthesis13.11 Radical Reactions Occur In Biological Systems13.12 Radicals and Stratospheric Ozone Tutorial: Drawing Curved Arrows in Radical Systems Part Four Identification of Organic Compounds 14 Mass Spectrometry, Infrared Spectroscopy, and Ultraviolet/ Visible Spectroscopy14.1 Mass Spectrometry14.2 The Mass Spectrum * Fragmentation14.3 Using the m/z of the Molecular Ion to Calculate the Molecular Formula14.4 Isotopes in Mass Spectrometry14.5 High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry Can Reveal Molecular Formulas14.6 The Fragmentation Patterns of Functional Groups14.7 Other Ionization Methods14.8 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry14.9 Spectroscopy and the Electromagnetic Spectrum14.10 Infrared Spectroscopy 14.11 Characteristic Infrared Absorption Bands14.12 The Intensity of Absorption Bands14.13 The Position of Absorption Bands14.14 The Position and Shape of an Absorption Band Is Affected By Electron Delocalization, Electron Donation and Withdrawal, and Hydrogen Bonding14.15 The Absence of Absorption Bands14.16 Some Vibrations Are Infrared Inactive14.17 How to Interpret an Infrared Spectrum14.18 Ultraviolet and Visible Spectroscopy14.19 The Beer- Lambert Law14.20 The Effect of Conjugation on max14.21 The Visible Spectrum and Color14.22 Some Uses of UV/ VIS Spectroscopy 15 NMR Spectroscopy15.1 An Introduction to NMR Spectroscopy15.2 Fourier Transform NMR15.3 Shielding Causes Different Hydrogens to Show Signals at Different Frequencies15.4 The Number of Signals in an 1H NMR Spectrum15.5 The Chemical Shift Tells How Far the Signal Is from the Reference Signal15.6 The Relative Positions of 1H NMR Signals15.7 The Characteristic Values of Chemical Shifts15.8 Diamagnetic Anisotropy15.9 The Integration of NMR Signals Reveals the Relative Number of Protons Causing Each Signal15.10 The Splitting of Signals Is Described by the N 1 Rule15.11 What causes Splitting? 15.12 More Examples of 1H NMR Spectra15.13 Coupling Constants Identify Coupled Protons15.14 Splitting Diagrams Explain the Multiplicity of a Signal15.15 Diastereotopic Hydrogens Are Not Chemically Equivalent15.16 The Time Dependence of NMR Spectroscopy15.17 Protons Bonded to Oxygen and Nitrogen15.18 The Use of Deuterium in 1H NMR Spectroscopy15.19 The Resolution of 1H NMR Spectra15.20 13C NMR Spectroscopy15.21 Dept 13C NMR Spectra15.22 Two-Dimensional NMR Spectroscopy15.23 NMR Used in Medicine Is Called Magnetic Resonance Imaging15.24 X-Ray Crystallography Part 5 Carbonyl Compounds 16 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids and Carboxylic Derivatives16.1 The Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids and Carboxylic Acid Derivatives16.2 The Structures of Carboxylic Acids and Carboxylic Acid Derivatives16.3 The Physical Properties of Carbonyl Compounds 16.4 Fatty Acids Are Long-Chain Carboxylic Acids16.5 How Carboxylic Acids and Carboxylic Acid Derivatives React16.6 The Relative Reactivities of Carboxylic Acids and Carboxylic Acid Derivatives16.7 The General Mechanism for Nucleophilic Addition- Elimination Reactions16.8 The Reactions of Acyl Chlorides16.9 The Reactions of Esters16.10 Acid-Catalyzed Ester Hydrolysis and Transesterification16.11 Hydroxide-Ion-Promoted Ester Hydrolysis16.12 How the Mechanism for Nucleophilic Addition-Elimination Was Confirmed16.13 Fats and Oils are Triglycerides16.14 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids16.15 Reactions of Amides16.16 Acid- Catalyzed Amide Hydrolysis and Alcoholysis16.17 Hydroxide-Ion Promoted Hydrolysis of Amides16.18 The Hydrolysis of an Imide: A Way to Synthesize Primary Amines16.19 Nitriles16.20 Acid Anhydrides16.21 Dicarboxylic Acids16.22 How Chemists Activate Carboxylic Acids 16.23 How Cells Activate Carboxylic Acids 17 Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones * More Reactions of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives * Reactions of , - Unsaturated Carbonyl Compounds17.1 The Nomenclature of Aldehydes and Ketones17.2 The Relative Reactivities of Carbonyl Compounds17.3 How Aldehydes and Ketones React17.4 The Reactions of Carbonyl Compounds with Gringard Reagents17.5 The Reactions of Carbonyl Compounds with Acetylide Ions17.6 The Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones with Cyanide Ion17.7 The Reactions of Carbonyl Compounds with Hydride Ion17.8 More about Reduction Reactions17.9 Chemoselective Reactions17.10 The Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones with Amines17.11 The Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones with Water 17.12 The Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones with Alcohols17.13 Protecting Groups17.14 The Addition of Sulfur Nucleophiles17.15 The Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones with a Peroxyacid 17.16 The Wittig Reaction Forms an Alkene17.17 Designing a Synthesis IV: Disconnections, Synthons, and Synthetic Equivalents17.18 Nucleophilic Addition to , - Unsaturated Aldehydes and Ketones17.19 Nucleophilic Addition to , - Unsaturated Carboxylic Acid Derivatives 18 Reactions at the - Carbon of Carbonyl Compounds18.1 The Acidity of an -Hydrogen18.2 Keto-Enol Tautomers18.3 Keto-Enol Interconversion18.4 Halogenation of the -Carbon of Aldehydes and Ketones. 18.5 Halogenation of the -Carbon of Carboxylic Acids: The Hell-Volhard-Zelinski Reaction18.6 Forming an Enolate Ion18.7 Alkylating the -Carbon of Carbonyl Compounds18.8 Alkylating the -Carbon Using an Enamine Intermediate18.9 Alkylating the -Carbon: The Michael Reaction18.10 An Aldol Addition Forms -Hydroxyaldehydes or -Hydroxyketones18.11 The Dehydration of Aldol Addition Products Forms , -Unsaturated Aldehydes and Ketones18.12 A Crossed Aldol Addition18.13 A Claisen Condensation Forms a -Keto Ester18.14 Other Crossed Condensations18.15 Intramolecular Condensations And Intramolecular Aldol Additions18.16 The Robinson Annulation18.17 Carboxylic Acids with a Carbonyl Group at the 3-Position Can Be Decarboxylated18.18 The Malonic Ester Synthesis: A Way to Synthesize a Carboxylic Acid18.19 The Acetoacetic Ester Synthesis: A Way Synthesize a Methyl Ketone18.20 Designing a Synthesis V: Making New Carbon-Carbon Bonds18.21 Reactions at the a-Carbon in Biological Systems18.22 Organizing What We Know About the Reactions of Organic Compounds Part 5 19 Reactions Of Benzene And Substituted Benzenes19.1 The Nomenclature of Monosubstituted Benzenes19.2 How Benzene Reacts19.3 The General Mechanism for Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution Reactions19.4 The Halogenation of Benzene19.5 The Nitration of Benzene19.6 The Sulfonation of Benzene19.7 The Friedel-Crafts Acylation of Benzene19.8 The Friedel-Crafts Alkylation of Benzene19.9 The Alkylation of Benzene by Acylation-Reduction19.10 Using Coupling Reactions to Alkylate Benzene19.11 It Is Important to Have More than One Way to Carry Out a Reaction19.12 How Some Substituents on a Benzene Ring Can Be Chemically Changed19.13 The Nomenclature of Disubstituted and Polysubstituted Benzenes19.14 The Effect of Substituents on Reactivity19.15 The Effect of Substituents on Orientation19.16 The Effect of Substituents on pKa19.17 The Ortho/Para Ratio19.18 Additional Considerations Regarding Substituent Effects19.19 Designing a Synthesis VI: Synthesis of Monosubstituted and Disubstituted Benzenes 19.20 The Synthesis of Trisubstituted Benzenes19.21 The Synthesis of Substituted Benzenes Using Arenediazonium Salts19.22 The Arenediazonium Ion as an Electrophile19.23 The Mechanism for the Reaction of Amines with Nitrous Acid19.24 Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution: An Addition-Elimination Reaction19.25 Designing a Synthesis VII: The Synthesis of Cyclic Compounds Tutorial: Synthesis and Retrosynthetic Analysis 20 More About Amines* Reactions of Heterocyclic Compounds20.1 More About Amine Nomenclature20.2 More About the Acid-Base Properties of Amines20.3 Amines React as Bases and as Nucleophiles20.4 The Synthesis of Amines20.5 Aromatic Five-Membered Ring Heterocycles 20.6 Aromatic Six-Membered-Ring Heterocycles 20.7 Some Amine Heterocycles Have Important Roles in Nature20.8 Organizing What We Know About the Reactions of Organic Compounds Part 7: Bioorganic Compounds 21 The Organic Chemistry Of Carbohydrates21.1 The Classification of Carbohydrates21.2 The D and L Notation21.3 The Configurations of the Aldoses21.4 The Configurations of the Ketoses21.5 The Reactions of Monosaccharides in Basic Solutions21.6 The Oxidation-Reduction Reactions of Monosaccharides21.7 Lengthening the Chain: The Kiliani-Fischer Synthesis21.8 Shortening the Chain: The Wohl Degradation21.9 The Stereochemistry of Glucose: The Fischer Proof 21.10 Monosaccharides Form Cyclic Hemiacetals21.11 Glucose Is the Most Stable Aldohexose21.12 Formation of Glycosides21.13 The Anomeric Effect21.14 Reducing and Nonreducing Sugars21.15 Disaccharides21.16 Polysaccharides21.17 Some Naturally Occurring Products Derived from Carbohydrates21.18 Carbohydrates on Cell Surfaces21.19 Artificial Sweeteners 22 The Organic Chemistry Of Amino Acids, Peptides, And Proteins22.1 Nomenclature of Amino Acids22.2 The Configuration of the Amino Acids22.3 The Acid-Base Properties of Amino Acids22.4 The Isoelectric Point22.5 Separating Amino Acids22.6 The Synthesis of Amino Acids22.7 The Resolution of Racemic Mixtures of Amino Acids22.8 Peptide Bonds and Disulfide Bonds22.9 Some Interesting Peptides22.10 The Strategy of Peptide Bond Synthesis: N-Protection and C-Activation22.11 Automated Peptide Synthesis22.12 An Introduction to Protein Structure22.13 How to Determine the Primary Structure of a Polypeptide or Protein22.14 Secondary Structure22.15 Tertiary Structure22.16 Quaternary Structure22.17 Protein Denaturation 23 Catalysis in Organic Reactions and in Enzymatic Reactions23.1 Catalysis in Organic Reactions 23.2 Acid Catalysis23.3 Base Catalysis 23.4 Nucleophilic Catalysis23.5 Metal-Ion Catalysis 23.6 Intramolecular Reactions 23.7 Intramolecular Catalysis23.8 Catalysis in Biological Reactions 23.9 The Mechanisms for Two Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions That Are Reminiscent of Acid-Catalyzed Amide Hydrolysis23.10 The Mechanism for an Enzyme-Catalyzed Reaction that Involves Two Sequential SN2 Reactions23.11 The Mechanism for an Enzyme-Catalyzed Reaction that is Reminiscent of the Base-Catalyzed Enediol Rearrangement23.12 The Mechanism for an Enzyme-Catalyzed Reaction that Is Reminiscent of the Aldol Addition Reaction 24 The Organic Chemistry Of The Coenzymes-Compounds Derived From Vitamins24.1 The Vitamin Needed for Many Redox Reactions: Niacin 24.2 Another Vitamin Used in Redox Reactions: Riboflavin 24.3 The Vitamin Needed for Acyl Group Transfer: Vitamin B124.4 The Vitamin Needed for Carboxylation of an a-Carbon: Vitamin H 24.5 The Vitamin Needed for Amino Acid Transformations: Vitamin B6 24.6 The Vitamin Needed for Certain Isomerizations: Vitamin B12 24.7 The Vitamin Needed for One-Carbon Transfer: Folate24.8 The Vitamin Needed for Carboxylation of Glutamate: Vitamin K 25 The Organic Chemistry of the Metabolic Pathways * Terpene Biosynthesis25.1 ATP Is Used for Phosphoryl Transfer Reactions25.2 ATP Activates A Compound by Giving it a Good Leaving Group25.3 Why ATP Is Kinetically Stable in a Cell25.4 The "High-Energy" Character of Phosphoanhydride Bonds25.5 The Four Stages of Catabolism25.6 The Catabolism of Fats25.7 The Catabolism of Carbohydrates25.8 The Fate of Pyruvate25.9 The Catabolism of Proteins25.10 The Citric Acid Cycle25.11 Oxidative Phosphorylation25.12 Anabolism25.13 Gluconeogenesis25.14 Regulating Metabolic Pathways25.15 Amino Acid Biosynthesis25.16 Terpenes Contain Carbon Atoms in Multiples of Five25.17 How Terpenes Are Biosynthesized25.18 How Nature Synthesizes Cholesterol 26 The Chemistry of the Nucleic Acids26.1 Nucleosides and Nucleotides26.2 Other Important Nucleotides26.3 Nucleic Acids Are Composed of Nucleotide Subunits26.4 Why DNA Does Not Have A 2' -OH Group26.5 The Biosynthesis of SNA Is Called Replication26.6 DNA and Heredity26.7 The Biosynthesis of RNA Is Called Transcription26.8 There Are Three Kinds of RNA26.9 The Biosynthesis of Proteins Is Called Translation26.10 Why DNA Contains Thymine Instead of Uracil26.11 Antiviral Drugs26.12 The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)26.13 Genetic Engineering26.14 The Laboratory Synthesis of DNA Strands Part 8 Special Topics in Organic Chemistry 27 Synthetic Polymers27.1 There Are Two Major Classes of Syntheric Polymers27.2 Chain-Growth Polymers27.3 Stereochemistry of Polymerization * Ziegler-Natta Catalysts27.4 Polymerization of Dienes * The Manufacture of Rubber27.5 Copolymers27.6 Step-Growth Polymers27.7 Classes of Step-Growth Polymers27.8 Physical Properties of Polymers27.9 Recycling Polymers27.10 Biodegradable Polymers Appendix I ValuesAppendix II Derivations of Rate LawsAppendix III Summary of Methods Used to Synthesize a Particular Functional GroupAppendix IV Summary of Methods Employed to Form Carbon-Carbon Bonds GlossaryPhoto CreditsIndex